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8
.gitignore vendored
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@ -2,9 +2,6 @@
node_modules
npm-debug.log
wtfpython-pypi/build/
wtfpython-pypi/dist/
wtfpython-pypi/wtfpython.egg-info
# Python-specific byte-compiled files should be ignored
__pycache__/
@ -16,3 +13,8 @@ irrelevant/.ipynb_checkpoints/
irrelevant/.python-version
.idea/
.vscode/
# Virtual envitonments
venv/
.venv/

21
CONTRIBUTING.md vendored
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@ -40,3 +40,24 @@ Few things that you can consider while writing an example,
- Try to be consistent with the namings and the values you use with the variables. For instance, most variable names in the project are along the lines of `some_string`, `some_list`, `some_dict`, etc. You'd see a lot of `x`s for single letter variable names, and `"wtf"` as values for strings. There's no strictly enforced scheme in the project as such, but you can take a glance at other examples to get a gist.
- Try to be as creative as possible to add that element of "surprise" in the setting up part of an example. Sometimes this may mean writing a snippet a sane programmer would never write.
- Also, feel free to add your name to the [contributors list](/CONTRIBUTORS.md).
**Some FAQs**
What is is this after every snippet title (###) in the README: <!-- Example ID: 30f1d3fc-e267-4b30-84ef-4d9e7091ac1a --->? Should it be added manually or can it be ignored when creating new snippets?
That's a random UUID, it is used to keep identify the examples across multiple translations of the project. As a contributor, you don't have to worry about behind the scenes of how it is used, you just have to add a new random UUID to new examples in that format.
Where should new snippets be added? Top/bottom of the section, doesn't ?
There are multiple things that are considered to decide the order (the dependency on the other examples, difficulty level, category, etc). I'd suggest simply adding the new example at the bottom of a section you find more fitting (or just add it to the Miscellaneous section). Its order will be taken care of in future revisions.
What's the difference between the sections (the first two feel very similar)?
The section "Strain your brain" contains more contrived examples that you may not really encounter in real life, whereas the section "Slippery Slopes" contains examples that have the potential to be encountered more frequently while programming.
Before the table of contents it says that markdown-toc -i README.md --maxdepth 3 was used to create it. The pip package markdown-toc does not contain either -i or --maxdepth flags. Which package is meant, or what version of that package?
Should the new table of contents entry for the snippet be created with the above command or created manually (in case the above command does more than only add the entry)?
We use the [markdown-toc](https://www.npmjs.com/package/markdown-toc) npm package to generate ToC. It has some issues with special characters though (I'm not sure if it's fixed yet). More often than not, I just end up inserting the toc link manually at the right place. The tool is handy when I have to big reordering, otherwise just updating toc manually is more convenient imo.
If you have any questions feel free to ask on [this issue](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/269) (thanks to [@LiquidFun](https://github.com/LiquidFun) for starting it).

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@ -18,11 +18,13 @@ Following are the wonderful people (in no specific order) who have contributed t
| leisurelicht | [leisurelicht](https://github.com/leisurelicht) | [#112](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/112) |
| mishaturnbull | [mishaturnbull](https://github.com/mishaturnbull) | [#108](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/108) |
| MuseBoy | [MuseBoy](https://github.com/MuseBoy) | [#101](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/101) |
| Ghost account | N/A | [#96](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/96)
| Ghost account | N/A | [#96](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/96) |
| koddo | [koddo](https://github.com/koddo) | [#80](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/80), [#73](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/73) |
| jab | [jab](https://github.com/jab) | [#77](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/77) |
| Jongy | [Jongy](https://github.com/Jongy) | [#208](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/208), [#210](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/210), [#233](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/233) |
| Diptangsu Goswami | [diptangsu](https://github.com/diptangsu) | [#193](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/193) |
| Charles | [charles-l](https://github.com/charles-l) | [#245](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/245) |
| LiquidFun | [LiquidFun](https://github.com/LiquidFun) | [#267](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/267) |
---
@ -32,7 +34,8 @@ Following are the wonderful people (in no specific order) who have contributed t
|-------------|--------|--------|
| leisurelicht | [leisurelicht](https://github.com/leisurelicht) | [Chinese](https://github.com/leisurelicht/wtfpython-cn) |
| vuduclyunitn | [vuduclyunitn](https://github.com/vuduclyunitn) | [Vietnamese](https://github.com/vuduclyunitn/wtfptyhon-vi) |
| José De Freitas | [JoseDeFreitas](https://github.com/JoseDeFreitas) | [Spanish](https://github.com/JoseDeFreitas/wtfpython-es) |
| Vadim Nifadev | [nifadyev](https://github.com/nifadyev) | [Russian](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/tree/master/translations/ru-russian) |
Thank you all for your time and making wtfpython more awesome! :smile:

211
README.md vendored
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@ -1,10 +1,17 @@
<p align="center"><img src="/images/logo.png" alt=""></p>
<p align="center">
<picture>
<source media="(prefers-color-scheme: dark)" srcset="/images/logo_dark_theme.svg">
<source media="(prefers-color-scheme: light)" srcset="/images/logo.svg">
<img alt="Shows a wtfpython logo." src="/images/logo.svg">
</picture>
</p>
<h1 align="center">What the f*ck Python! 😱</h1>
<p align="center">Exploring and understanding Python through surprising snippets.</p>
Translations: [Chinese 中文](https://github.com/leisurelicht/wtfpython-cn) | [Vietnamese Tiếng Việt](https://github.com/vuduclyunitn/wtfptyhon-vi) | [Add translation](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/new?title=Add%20translation%20for%20[LANGUAGE]&body=Expected%20time%20to%20finish:%20[X]%20weeks.%20I%27ll%20start%20working%20on%20it%20from%20[Y].)
Other modes: [Interactive](https://colab.research.google.com/github/satwikkansal/wtfpython/blob/master/irrelevant/wtf.ipynb) | [CLI](https://pypi.python.org/pypi/wtfpython)
Translations: [Chinese 中文](https://github.com/leisurelicht/wtfpython-cn) | [Vietnamese Tiếng Việt](https://github.com/vuduclyunitn/wtfptyhon-vi) | [Spanish Español](https://web.archive.org/web/20220511161045/https://github.com/JoseDeFreitas/wtfpython-es) | [Korean 한국어](https://github.com/buttercrab/wtfpython-ko) | [Russian Русский](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/tree/master/translations/ru-russian) | [German Deutsch](https://github.com/BenSt099/wtfpython) | [Add translation](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/new?title=Add%20translation%20for%20[LANGUAGE]&body=Expected%20time%20to%20finish:%20[X]%20weeks.%20I%27ll%20start%20working%20on%20it%20from%20[Y].)
Other modes: [Interactive Website](https://wtfpython-interactive.vercel.app) | [Interactive Notebook](https://colab.research.google.com/github/satwikkansal/wtfpython/blob/master/irrelevant/wtf.ipynb)
Python, being a beautifully designed high-level and interpreter-based programming language, provides us with many features for the programmer's comfort. But sometimes, the outcomes of a Python snippet may not seem obvious at first sight.
@ -41,7 +48,7 @@ So, here we go...
+ [▶ Evaluation time discrepancy](#-evaluation-time-discrepancy)
+ [▶ `is not ...` is not `is (not ...)`](#-is-not--is-not-is-not-)
+ [▶ A tic-tac-toe where X wins in the first attempt!](#-a-tic-tac-toe-where-x-wins-in-the-first-attempt)
+ [▶ The sticky output function](#-the-sticky-output-function)
+ [▶ Schrödinger's variable](#-schrödingers-variable-)
+ [▶ The chicken-egg problem *](#-the-chicken-egg-problem-)
+ [▶ Subclass relationships](#-subclass-relationships)
+ [▶ Methods equality and identity](#-methods-equality-and-identity)
@ -59,6 +66,7 @@ So, here we go...
+ [▶ The disappearing variable from outer scope](#-the-disappearing-variable-from-outer-scope)
+ [▶ The mysterious key type conversion](#-the-mysterious-key-type-conversion)
+ [▶ Let's see if you can guess this?](#-lets-see-if-you-can-guess-this)
+ [▶ Exceeds the limit for integer string conversion](#-exceeds-the-limit-for-integer-string-conversion)
* [Section: Slippery Slopes](#section-slippery-slopes)
+ [▶ Modifying a dictionary while iterating over it](#-modifying-a-dictionary-while-iterating-over-it)
+ [▶ Stubborn `del` operation](#-stubborn-del-operation)
@ -70,6 +78,7 @@ So, here we go...
+ [▶ Catching the Exceptions](#-catching-the-exceptions)
+ [▶ Same operands, different story!](#-same-operands-different-story)
+ [▶ Name resolution ignoring class scope](#-name-resolution-ignoring-class-scope)
+ [▶ Rounding like a banker *](#-rounding-like-a-banker-)
+ [▶ Needles in a Haystack *](#-needles-in-a-haystack-)
+ [▶ Splitsies *](#-splitsies-)
+ [▶ Wild imports *](#-wild-imports-)
@ -141,7 +150,7 @@ All the examples are structured like below:
# Usage
A nice way to get the most out of these examples, in my opinion, is to read them chronologically, and for every example:
A nice way to get the most out of these examples, in my opinion, is to read them in sequential order, and for every example:
- Carefully read the initial code for setting up the example. If you're an experienced Python programmer, you'll successfully anticipate what's going to happen next most of the time.
- Read the output snippets and,
+ Check if the outputs are the same as you'd expect.
@ -149,11 +158,6 @@ A nice way to get the most out of these examples, in my opinion, is to read them
- If the answer is no (which is perfectly okay), take a deep breath, and read the explanation (and if you still don't understand, shout out! and create an issue [here](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/new)).
- If yes, give a gentle pat on your back, and you may skip to the next example.
PS: You can also read WTFPython at the command line using the [pypi package](https://pypi.python.org/pypi/wtfpython),
```sh
$ pip install wtfpython -U
$ wtfpython
```
---
# 👀 Examples
@ -207,7 +211,7 @@ SyntaxError: invalid syntax
(6, 9)
>>> (a, b = 16, 19) # Oops
File "<stdin>", line 1
(a, b = 6, 9)
(a, b = 16, 19)
^
SyntaxError: invalid syntax
@ -349,7 +353,14 @@ Makes sense, right?
* All length 0 and length 1 strings are interned.
* Strings are interned at compile time (`'wtf'` will be interned but `''.join(['w', 't', 'f'])` will not be interned)
* Strings that are not composed of ASCII letters, digits or underscores, are not interned. This explains why `'wtf!'` was not interned due to `!`. CPython implementation of this rule can be found [here](https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.6/Objects/codeobject.c#L19)
![image](/images/string-intern/string_intern.png)
<p align="center">
<picture>
<source media="(prefers-color-scheme: dark)" srcset="/images/string-intern/string_interning_dark_theme.svg">
<source media="(prefers-color-scheme: light)" srcset="/images/string-intern/string_interning.svg">
<img alt="Shows a string interning process." src="/images/string-intern/string_interning.svg">
</picture>
</p>
+ When `a` and `b` are set to `"wtf!"` in the same line, the Python interpreter creates a new object, then references the second variable at the same time. If you do it on separate lines, it doesn't "know" that there's already `"wtf!"` as an object (because `"wtf!"` is not implicitly interned as per the facts mentioned above). It's a compile-time optimization. This optimization doesn't apply to 3.7.x versions of CPython (check this [issue](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/100) for more discussion).
+ A compile unit in an interactive environment like IPython consists of a single statement, whereas it consists of the entire module in case of modules. `a, b = "wtf!", "wtf!"` is single statement, whereas `a = "wtf!"; b = "wtf!"` are two statements in a single line. This explains why the identities are different in `a = "wtf!"; b = "wtf!"`, and also explain why they are same when invoked in `some_file.py`
+ The abrupt change in the output of the fourth snippet is due to a [peephole optimization](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peephole_optimization) technique known as Constant folding. This means the expression `'a'*20` is replaced by `'aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa'` during compilation to save a few clock cycles during runtime. Constant folding only occurs for strings having a length of less than 21. (Why? Imagine the size of `.pyc` file generated as a result of the expression `'a'*10**10`). [Here's](https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/3.6/Python/peephole.c#L288) the implementation source for the same.
@ -383,15 +394,15 @@ False
#### 💡 Explanation:
As per https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#membership-test-operations
As per https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#comparisons
> Formally, if a, b, c, ..., y, z are expressions and op1, op2, ..., opN are comparison operators, then a op1 b op2 c ... y opN z is equivalent to a op1 b and b op2 c and ... y opN z, except that each expression is evaluated at most once.
While such behavior might seem silly to you in the above examples, it's fantastic with stuff like `a == b == c` and `0 <= x <= 100`.
* `False is False is False` is equivalent to `(False is False) and (False is False)`
* `True is False == False` is equivalent to `True is False and False == False` and since the first part of the statement (`True is False`) evaluates to `False`, the overall expression evaluates to `False`.
* `1 > 0 < 1` is equivalent to `1 > 0 and 0 < 1` which evaluates to `True`.
* `True is False == False` is equivalent to `(True is False) and (False == False)` and since the first part of the statement (`True is False`) evaluates to `False`, the overall expression evaluates to `False`.
* `1 > 0 < 1` is equivalent to `(1 > 0) and (0 < 1)` which evaluates to `True`.
* The expression `(1 > 0) < 1` is equivalent to `True < 1` and
```py
>>> int(True)
@ -448,7 +459,7 @@ True
```py
>>> a, b = 257, 257
>> a is b
>>> a is b
False
```
@ -618,7 +629,7 @@ True
* When `id` was called, Python created a `WTF` class object and passed it to the `id` function. The `id` function takes its `id` (its memory location), and throws away the object. The object is destroyed.
* When we do this twice in succession, Python allocates the same memory location to this second object as well. Since (in CPython) `id` uses the memory location as the object id, the id of the two objects is the same.
* So, the object's id is unique only for the lifetime of the object. After the object is destroyed, or before it is created, something else can have the same id.
* But why did the `is` operator evaluated to `False`? Let's see with this snippet.
* But why did the `is` operator evaluate to `False`? Let's see with this snippet.
```py
class WTF(object):
def __init__(self): print("I")
@ -916,9 +927,9 @@ array_4 = [400, 500, 600]
- In a [generator](https://wiki.python.org/moin/Generators) expression, the `in` clause is evaluated at declaration time, but the conditional clause is evaluated at runtime.
- So before runtime, `array` is re-assigned to the list `[2, 8, 22]`, and since out of `1`, `8` and `15`, only the count of `8` is greater than `0`, the generator only yields `8`.
- The differences in the output of `g1` and `g2` in the second part is due the way variables `array_1` and `array_2` are re-assigned values.
- In the first case, `array_1` is binded to the new object `[1,2,3,4,5]` and since the `in` clause is evaluated at the declaration time it still refers to the old object `[1,2,3,4]` (which is not destroyed).
- In the first case, `array_1` is bound to the new object `[1,2,3,4,5]` and since the `in` clause is evaluated at the declaration time it still refers to the old object `[1,2,3,4]` (which is not destroyed).
- In the second case, the slice assignment to `array_2` updates the same old object `[1,2,3,4]` to `[1,2,3,4,5]`. Hence both the `g2` and `array_2` still have reference to the same object (which has now been updated to `[1,2,3,4,5]`).
- Okay, going by the logic discussed so far, shouldn't be the value of `list(g)` in the third snippet be `[11, 21, 31, 12, 22, 32, 13, 23, 33]`? (because `array_3` and `array_4` are going to behave just like `array_1`). The reason why (only) `array_4` values got updated is explained in [PEP-289](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0289/#the-details)
- Okay, going by the logic discussed so far, shouldn't be the value of `list(gen)` in the third snippet be `[11, 21, 31, 12, 22, 32, 13, 23, 33]`? (because `array_3` and `array_4` are going to behave just like `array_1`). The reason why (only) `array_4` values got updated is explained in [PEP-289](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0289/#the-details)
> Only the outermost for-expression is evaluated immediately, the other expressions are deferred until the generator is run.
@ -972,11 +983,23 @@ We didn't assign three `"X"`s, did we?
When we initialize `row` variable, this visualization explains what happens in the memory
![image](/images/tic-tac-toe/after_row_initialized.png)
<p align="center">
<picture>
<source media="(prefers-color-scheme: dark)" srcset="/images/tic-tac-toe/after_row_initialized_dark_theme.svg">
<source media="(prefers-color-scheme: light)" srcset="/images/tic-tac-toe/after_row_initialized.svg">
<img alt="Shows a memory segment after row is initialized." src="/images/tic-tac-toe/after_row_initialized.svg">
</picture>
</p>
And when the `board` is initialized by multiplying the `row`, this is what happens inside the memory (each of the elements `board[0]`, `board[1]` and `board[2]` is a reference to the same list referred by `row`)
![image](/images/tic-tac-toe/after_board_initialized.png)
<p align="center">
<picture>
<source media="(prefers-color-scheme: dark)" srcset="/images/tic-tac-toe/after_board_initialized_dark_theme.svg">
<source media="(prefers-color-scheme: light)" srcset="/images/tic-tac-toe/after_board_initialized.svg">
<img alt="Shows a memory segment after board is initialized." src="/images/tic-tac-toe/after_board_initialized.svg">
</picture>
</p>
We can avoid this scenario here by not using `row` variable to generate `board`. (Asked in [this](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/68) issue).
@ -989,10 +1012,9 @@ We can avoid this scenario here by not using `row` variable to generate `board`.
---
### ▶ The sticky output function
### ▶ Schrödinger's variable *
<!-- Example ID: 4dc42f77-94cb-4eb5-a120-8203d3ed7604 --->
1\.
```py
funcs = []
@ -1006,17 +1028,17 @@ for x in range(7):
funcs_results = [func() for func in funcs]
```
**Output:**
**Output (Python version):**
```py
>>> results
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
>>> funcs_results
[6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6]
```
Even when the values of `x` were different in every iteration prior to appending `some_func` to `funcs`, all the functions return 6.
2\.
The values of `x` were different in every iteration prior to appending `some_func` to `funcs`, but all the functions return 6 when they're evaluated after the loop completes.
2.
```py
>>> powers_of_x = [lambda x: x**i for i in range(10)]
@ -1024,12 +1046,22 @@ Even when the values of `x` were different in every iteration prior to appending
[512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512, 512]
```
#### 💡 Explanation
#### 💡 Explanation:
* When defining a function inside a loop that uses the loop variable in its body, the loop function's closure is bound to the *variable*, not its *value*. The function looks up `x` in the surrounding context, rather than using the value of `x` at the time the function is created. So all of the functions use the latest value assigned to the variable for computation. We can see that it's using the `x` from the surrounding context (i.e. *not* a local variable) with:
```py
>>> import inspect
>>> inspect.getclosurevars(funcs[0])
ClosureVars(nonlocals={}, globals={'x': 6}, builtins={}, unbound=set())
```
Since `x` is a global value, we can change the value that the `funcs` will lookup and return by updating `x`:
- When defining a function inside a loop that uses the loop variable in its body, the loop function's closure is bound to the variable, not its value. So all of the functions use the latest value assigned to the variable for computation.
```py
>>> x = 42
>>> [func() for func in funcs]
[42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42]
```
- To get the desired behavior you can pass in the loop variable as a named variable to the function. **Why does this work?** Because this will define the variable
within the function's scope.
* To get the desired behavior you can pass in the loop variable as a named variable to the function. **Why does this work?** Because this will define the variable *inside* the function's scope. It will no longer go to the surrounding (global) scope to look up the variables value but will create a local variable that stores the value of `x` at that point in time.
```py
funcs = []
@ -1040,12 +1072,20 @@ within the function's scope.
```
**Output:**
```py
>>> funcs_results = [func() for func in funcs]
>>> funcs_results
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
```
It is not longer using the `x` in the global scope:
```py
>>> inspect.getclosurevars(funcs[0])
ClosureVars(nonlocals={}, globals={}, builtins={}, unbound=set())
```
---
### ▶ The chicken-egg problem *
@ -1102,7 +1142,7 @@ False
<!-- Example ID: 9f6d8cf0-e1b5-42d0-84a0-4cfab25a0bc0 --->
**Output:**
```py
>>> from collections import Hashable
>>> from collections.abc import Hashable
>>> issubclass(list, object)
True
>>> issubclass(object, Hashable)
@ -1256,8 +1296,8 @@ Why's this True-False alteration?
```
- `all([])` returns `True` since the iterable is empty.
- `all([[]])` returns `False` because `not []` is `True` is equivalent to `not False` as the list inside the iterable is empty.
- `all([[[]]])` and higher recursive variants are always `True` since `not [[]]`, `not [[[]]]`, and so on are equivalent to `not True`.
- `all([[]])` returns `False` because the passed array has one element, `[]`, and in python, an empty list is falsy.
- `all([[[]]])` and higher recursive variants are always `True`. This is because the passed array's single element (`[[...]]`) is no longer empty, and lists with values are truthy.
---
@ -1324,7 +1364,7 @@ True
```py
>>> r'wt\"f' == 'wt\\"f'
True
>>> print(repr(r'wt\"f')
>>> print(repr(r'wt\"f'))
'wt\\"f'
>>> print("\n")
@ -1957,9 +1997,45 @@ a, b = a[b] = {}, 5
True
```
---
### ▶ Exceeds the limit for integer string conversion
```py
>>> # Python 3.10.6
>>> int("2" * 5432)
>>> # Python 3.10.8
>>> int("2" * 5432)
```
**Output:**
```py
>>> # Python 3.10.6
222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222...
>>> # Python 3.10.8
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Exceeds the limit (4300) for integer string conversion:
value has 5432 digits; use sys.set_int_max_str_digits()
to increase the limit.
```
#### 💡 Explanation:
This call to `int()` works fine in Python 3.10.6 and raises a ValueError in Python 3.10.8. Note that Python can still work with large integers. The error is only raised when converting between integers and strings.
Fortunately, you can increase the limit for the allowed number of digits when you expect an operation to exceed it. To do this, you can use one of the following:
- The -X int_max_str_digits command-line flag
- The set_int_max_str_digits() function from the sys module
- The PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS environment variable
[Check the documentation](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#int-max-str-digits) for more details on changing the default limit if you expect your code to exceed this value.
---
## Section: Slippery Slopes
### ▶ Modifying a dictionary while iterating over it
@ -2118,7 +2194,7 @@ UnboundLocalError: local variable 'a' referenced before assignment
>>> another_func()
2
```
* The keywords `global` and `nonlocal` tell the python interpreter to not delcare new variables and look them up in the corresponding outer scopes.
* The keywords `global` and `nonlocal` tell the python interpreter to not declare new variables and look them up in the corresponding outer scopes.
* Read [this](https://sebastianraschka.com/Articles/2014_python_scope_and_namespaces.html) short but an awesome guide to learn more about how namespaces and scope resolution works in Python.
---
@ -2515,6 +2591,56 @@ class SomeClass:
---
### ▶ Rounding like a banker *
Let's implement a naive function to get the middle element of a list:
```py
def get_middle(some_list):
mid_index = round(len(some_list) / 2)
return some_list[mid_index - 1]
```
**Python 3.x:**
```py
>>> get_middle([1]) # looks good
1
>>> get_middle([1,2,3]) # looks good
2
>>> get_middle([1,2,3,4,5]) # huh?
2
>>> len([1,2,3,4,5]) / 2 # good
2.5
>>> round(len([1,2,3,4,5]) / 2) # why?
2
```
It seems as though Python rounded 2.5 to 2.
#### 💡 Explanation:
- This is not a float precision error, in fact, this behavior is intentional. Since Python 3.0, `round()` uses [banker's rounding](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounding#Rounding_half_to_even) where .5 fractions are rounded to the nearest **even** number:
```py
>>> round(0.5)
0
>>> round(1.5)
2
>>> round(2.5)
2
>>> import numpy # numpy does the same
>>> numpy.round(0.5)
0.0
>>> numpy.round(1.5)
2.0
>>> numpy.round(2.5)
2.0
```
- This is the recommended way to round .5 fractions as described in [IEEE 754](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754#Rounding_rules). However, the other way (round away from zero) is taught in school most of the time, so banker's rounding is likely not that well known. Furthermore, some of the most popular programming languages (for example: JavaScript, Java, C/C++, Ruby, Rust) do not use banker's rounding either. Therefore, this is still quite special to Python and may result in confusion when rounding fractions.
- See the [round() docs](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#round) or [this stackoverflow thread](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/10825926/python-3-x-rounding-behavior) for more information.
- Note that `get_middle([1])` only returned 1 because the index was `round(0.5) - 1 = 0 - 1 = -1`, returning the last element in the list.
---
### ▶ Needles in a Haystack *
<!-- Example ID: 52a199b1-989a-4b28-8910-dff562cebba9 --->
@ -2685,7 +2811,7 @@ def similar_recursive_func(a):
* As for the fifth snippet, most methods that modify the items of sequence/mapping objects like `list.append`, `dict.update`, `list.sort`, etc. modify the objects in-place and return `None`. The rationale behind this is to improve performance by avoiding making a copy of the object if the operation can be done in-place (Referred from [here](https://docs.python.org/3/faq/design.html#why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list)).
* Last one should be fairly obvious, mutable object (like `list`) can be altered in the function, and the reassignation of an immutable (`a -= 1`) is not an alteration of the value.
* Last one should be fairly obvious, mutable object (like `list`) can be altered in the function, and the reassignment of an immutable (`a -= 1`) is not an alteration of the value.
* Being aware of these nitpicks can save you hours of debugging effort in the long run.
@ -3097,7 +3223,7 @@ Ellipsis
>>> ...
Ellipsis
```
- Eliipsis can be used for several purposes,
- Ellipsis can be used for several purposes,
+ As a placeholder for code that hasn't been written yet (just like `pass` statement)
+ In slicing syntax to represent the full slices in remaining direction
```py
@ -3542,7 +3668,7 @@ What makes those dictionaries become bloated? And why are newly created objects
+ CPython is able to reuse the same "keys" object in multiple dictionaries. This was added in [PEP 412](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0412/) with the motivation to reduce memory usage, specifically in dictionaries of instances - where keys (instance attributes) tend to be common to all instances.
+ This optimization is entirely seamless for instance dictionaries, but it is disabled if certain assumptions are broken.
+ Key-sharing dictionaries do not support deletion; if an instance attribute is deleted, the dictionary is "unshared", and key-sharing is disabled for all future instances of the same class.
+ Additionaly, if the dictionary keys have be resized (because new keys are inserted), they are kept shared *only* if they are used by a exactly single dictionary (this allows adding many attributes in the `__init__` of the very first created instance, without causing an "unshare"). If multiple instances exist when a resize happens, key-sharing is disabled for all future instances of the same class: CPython can't tell if your instances are using the same set of attributes anymore, and decides to bail out on attempting to share their keys.
+ Additionally, if the dictionary keys have been resized (because new keys are inserted), they are kept shared *only* if they are used by a exactly single dictionary (this allows adding many attributes in the `__init__` of the very first created instance, without causing an "unshare"). If multiple instances exist when a resize happens, key-sharing is disabled for all future instances of the same class: CPython can't tell if your instances are using the same set of attributes anymore, and decides to bail out on attempting to share their keys.
+ A small tip, if you aim to lower your program's memory footprint: don't delete instance attributes, and make sure to initialize all attributes in your `__init__`!
@ -3554,7 +3680,7 @@ What makes those dictionaries become bloated? And why are newly created objects
* Few weird looking but semantically correct statements:
+ `[] = ()` is a semantically correct statement (unpacking an empty `tuple` into an empty `list`)
+ `'a'[0][0][0][0][0]` is also a semantically correct statement as strings are [sequences](https://docs.python.org/3/glossary.html#term-sequence)(iterables supporting element access using integer indices) in Python.
+ `'a'[0][0][0][0][0]` is also semantically correct, because Python doesn't have a character data type like other languages branched from C. So selecting a single character from a string returns a single-character string.
+ `3 --0-- 5 == 8` and `--5 == 5` are both semantically correct statements and evaluate to `True`.
* Given that `a` is a number, `++a` and `--a` are both valid Python statements but don't behave the same way as compared with similar statements in languages like C, C++, or Java.
@ -3717,7 +3843,6 @@ The idea and design for this collection were initially inspired by Denys Dovhan'
* https://stackoverflow.com/questions/1011431/common-pitfalls-in-python
* https://www.python.org/doc/humor/
* https://github.com/cosmologicon/pywat#the-undocumented-converse-implication-operator
* https://www.codementor.io/satwikkansal/python-practices-for-efficient-code-performance-memory-and-usability-aze6oiq65
* https://github.com/wemake-services/wemake-python-styleguide/search?q=wtfpython&type=Issues
* WFTPython discussion threads on [Hacker News](https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=21862073) and [Reddit](https://www.reddit.com/r/programming/comments/edsh3q/what_the_fck_python_30_exploring_and/).
@ -3738,7 +3863,7 @@ If you like wtfpython, you can use these quick links to share it with your frien
## Need a pdf version?
I've received a few requests for the pdf (and epub) version of wtfpython. You can add your details [here](https://satwikkansal.xyz/wtfpython-pdf/) to get them as soon as they are finished.
I've received a few requests for the pdf (and epub) version of wtfpython. You can add your details [here](https://form.jotform.com/221593245656057) to get them as soon as they are finished.
**That's all folks!** For upcoming content like this, you can add your email [here](https://www.satwikkansal.xyz/content-like-wtfpython/).
**That's all folks!** For upcoming content like this, you can add your email [here](https://form.jotform.com/221593598380062).

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images/logo_dark_theme.svg vendored Executable file
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43
irrelevant/notebook_generator.py
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@ -55,6 +55,12 @@ That being said, most of the examples do work as expected. If you face any troub
def generate_code_block(statements, output):
"""
Generates a code block that executes the given statements.
:param statements: The list of statements to execute.
:type statements: list(str)
"""
global sequence_num
result = {
"type": "code",
@ -67,6 +73,9 @@ def generate_code_block(statements, output):
def generate_markdown_block(lines):
"""
Generates a markdown block from a list of lines.
"""
global sequence_num
result = {
"type": "markdown",
@ -85,6 +94,12 @@ def is_interactive_statement(line):
def parse_example_parts(lines, title, current_line):
"""
Parse the given lines and return a dictionary with two keys:
build_up, which contains all the text before an H4 (explanation) is encountered,
and
explanation, which contains all the text after build_up until --- or another H3 is encountered.
"""
parts = {
"build_up": [],
"explanation": []
@ -191,6 +206,14 @@ def remove_from_beginning(tokens, line):
def inspect_and_sanitize_code_lines(lines):
"""
Remove lines from the beginning of a code block that are not statements.
:param lines: A list of strings, each representing a line in the code block.
:returns is_print_present, sanitized_lines: A boolean indicating whether print was present in the original code and a list of strings representing
sanitized lines. The latter may be an empty list if all input lines were removed as comments or whitespace (and thus did not contain any statements).
This function does not remove blank lines at the end of `lines`.
"""
tokens_to_remove = STATEMENT_PREFIXES
result = []
is_print_present = False
@ -203,6 +226,23 @@ def inspect_and_sanitize_code_lines(lines):
def convert_to_cells(cell_contents, read_only):
"""
Converts a list of dictionaries containing markdown and code cells into a Jupyter notebook.
:param cell_contents: A list of dictionaries, each
dictionary representing either a markdown or code cell. Each dictionary should have the following keys: "type", which is either "markdown" or "code",
and "value". The value for type = 'markdown' is the content as string, whereas the value for type = 'code' is another dictionary with two keys,
statements and output. The statements key contains all lines in between ```py\n``` (including) until ```\n```, while output contains all lines after
```.output py\n```.
:type cell_contents: List[Dict]
:param read_only (optional): If True then only print outputs are included in converted
cells. Default False
:type read_only (optional): bool
:returns A Jupyter notebook containing all cells from input parameter `cell_contents`.
Each converted cell has metadata attribute collapsed set to true if it's code-cell otherwise None if it's markdow-cell.
"""
cells = []
for stuff in cell_contents:
if stuff["type"] == "markdown":
@ -269,6 +309,9 @@ def convert_to_cells(cell_contents, read_only):
def convert_to_notebook(pre_examples_content, parsed_json, post_examples_content):
"""
Convert a JSON file containing the examples to a Jupyter Notebook.
"""
result = {
"cells": [],
"metadata": {},

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Приветствуются все виды изменений. Не стесняйтесь предлагать броские и смешные названия для существующих примеров. Цель - сделать эту коллекцию как можно более интересной для чтения. Вот несколько способов, с помощью которых вы можете внести свой вклад,
- Если вы заинтересованы в переводе проекта на другой язык (некоторые люди уже делали это в прошлом), пожалуйста, не стесняйтесь открыть тему и дайте мне знать, если вам нужна какая-либо помощь.
- Если изменения, которые вы предлагаете, значительны, то создание issue перед внесением изменений будет оценено по достоинству. Если вы хотите поработать над issue (это очень рекомендуется), выразите свою заинтересованность и вы будете назначены исполнителем.
- Если вы добавляете новый пример, настоятельно рекомендуется создать issue, чтобы обсудить ее перед отправкой изменений. Для добавления нового примера вы можете использовать следующий шаблон:
<pre>
### ▶ Какое-то причудливое название. *
* в конце названия означает, что пример был добавлен недавно.
```py
# Подготовка кода.
# Подготовка к волшебству...
```
**Вывод (версия Python):**
```py
>>> triggering_statement
Вероятно, неожиданный вывод
```
(Необязательно): Одна строка, описывающая неожиданный вывод.
#### 💡 Объяснение:
* Краткое объяснение того, что происходит и почему это происходит.
```py
Подготовка примеров для пояснения (при необходимости)
```
**Вывод:**
```py
>>> trigger # пример, облегчающий понимание магии
# обоснованный вывод
```
</pre>
Несколько моментов, которые стоит учитывать при написании примера,
- Если вы решили отправить новый пример без создания issue и обсуждения, пожалуйста, проверьте проект, чтобы убедиться, что в нем уже нет похожих примеров.
- Старайтесь быть последовательными в именах и значениях, которые вы используете для переменных. Например, большинство имен переменных в проекте имеют вид `some_string`, `some_list`, `some_dict` и т.д. Вы увидите много `x` для однобуквенных имен переменных, и `"wtf"` в качестве значений для строк. В проекте нет строгой схемы, как таковой, но вы можете взглянуть на другие примеры, чтобы понять суть.
- Старайтесь быть как можно более креативными, чтобы добавить элемент "сюрприза" во время подготовки примеров. Иногда это может означать написание фрагмента, который здравомыслящий программист никогда бы не написал.
- Также не стесняйтесь добавлять свое имя в список [контрибьюторов](/CONTRIBUTORS.md).
**Некоторые часто задаваемые вопросы**
Что это такое после каждого заголовка сниппета (###) в README: <!-- ID примера: 30f1d3fc-e267-4b30-84ef-4d9e7091ac1a --->? Нужно ли его добавлять вручную или можно игнорировать при создании новых сниппетов?
Это случайный UUID, он используется для идентификации примеров в нескольких переводах проекта. Как контрибьютор, вы не должны беспокоиться о том, как он используется, вы просто должны добавлять новый случайный UUID к новым примерам в этом формате.
Куда следует добавлять новые сниппеты? В начало/в конец раздела?
При определении порядка учитывается множество факторов (зависимость от других примеров, уровень сложности, категория и т.д.). Я бы предложил просто добавить новый пример в конец раздела, который вы считаете более подходящим (или просто добавить его в раздел "Разное"). О его порядке можно будет позаботиться в будущих редакциях.
В чем разница между разделами (первые два очень похожи)?
Раздел "Напрягите мозг" содержит более надуманные примеры, с которыми вы не столкнетесь в реальной жизни, в то время как раздел "Скользкие склоны" содержит примеры, с которыми можно чаще сталкиваться при программировании.
Перед оглавлением написано, что для его создания использовался markdown-toc -i README.md --maxdepth 3. Пакет pip markdown-toc не содержит ни флагов -i, ни --maxdepth. Какой пакет имеется в виду, или какая версия этого пакета?
Должна ли новая запись в оглавлении для фрагмента быть создана с помощью вышеуказанной команды или вручную (в случае, если вышеуказанная команда делает больше, чем просто добавляет запись)?
Мы используем пакет [markdown-toc](https://www.npmjs.com/package/markdown-toc) npm для создания ToC (содержание). Однако у него есть некоторые проблемы со специальными символами (не уверен, что они уже исправлены). Чаще всего я просто вставляю ссылку toc вручную в нужное место. Инструмент удобен, когда мне нужно сделать большую перестановку, в остальных случаях просто обновлять toc вручную удобнее.
Если у вас есть вопросы, не стесняйтесь спрашивать в [issue](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/269) (спасибо [@LiquidFun](https://github.com/LiquidFun) за ее создание).

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Ниже перечислены (без определенного порядка) замечательные люди, которые внесли вклад в развитие wtfpython.
| Автор | Github | Issues |
|-------------|--------|--------|
| Lucas-C | [Lucas-C](https://github.com/Lucas-C) | [#36](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/36) |
| MittalAshok | [MittalAshok](https://github.com/MittalAshok) | [#23](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/23) |
| asottile | [asottile](https://github.com/asottile) | [#40](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/40) |
| MostAwesomeDude | [MostAwesomeDude](https://github.com/MostAwesomeDude) | [#1](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/1) |
| tukkek | [tukkek](https://github.com/tukkek) | [#11](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/11), [#26](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/26) |
| PiaFraus | [PiaFraus](https://github.com/PiaFraus) | [#9](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/9) |
| chris-rands | [chris-rands](https://github.com/chris-rands) | [#32](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/32) |
| sohaibfarooqi | [sohaibfarooqi](https://github.com/sohaibfarooqi) | [#63](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/63) |
| ipid | [ipid](https://github.com/ipid) | [#145](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/145) |
| roshnet | [roshnet](https://github.com/roshnet) | [#140](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/140) |
| daidai21 | [daidai21](https://github.com/daidai21) | [#137](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/137) |
| scidam | [scidam](https://github.com/scidam) | [#136](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/136) |
| pmjpawelec | [pmjpawelec](https://github.com/pmjpawelec) | [#121](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/121) |
| leisurelicht | [leisurelicht](https://github.com/leisurelicht) | [#112](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/112) |
| mishaturnbull | [mishaturnbull](https://github.com/mishaturnbull) | [#108](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/108) |
| MuseBoy | [MuseBoy](https://github.com/MuseBoy) | [#101](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/101) |
| Ghost account | N/A | [#96](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/96) |
| koddo | [koddo](https://github.com/koddo) | [#80](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/80), [#73](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/73) |
| jab | [jab](https://github.com/jab) | [#77](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/77) |
| Jongy | [Jongy](https://github.com/Jongy) | [#208](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/208), [#210](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/210), [#233](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/233) |
| Diptangsu Goswami | [diptangsu](https://github.com/diptangsu) | [#193](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/193) |
| Charles | [charles-l](https://github.com/charles-l) | [#245](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/245) |
| LiquidFun | [LiquidFun](https://github.com/LiquidFun) | [#267](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/issues/267) |
---
**Переводчики**
| Переводчик | Github | Язык |
|-------------|--------|--------|
| leisurelicht | [leisurelicht](https://github.com/leisurelicht) | [Chinese](https://github.com/leisurelicht/wtfpython-cn) |
| vuduclyunitn | [vuduclyunitn](https://github.com/vuduclyunitn) | [Vietnamese](https://github.com/vuduclyunitn/wtfptyhon-vi) |
| José De Freitas | [JoseDeFreitas](https://github.com/JoseDeFreitas) | [Spanish](https://github.com/JoseDeFreitas/wtfpython-es) |
| Vadim Nifadev | [nifadyev](https://github.com/nifadyev) | [Russian](https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython/tree/master/translations/ru-russian) |
Спасибо всем за ваше время и за то, что делаете wtfpython еще более потрясающим! :smile:
PS: Этот список обновляется после каждого крупного релиза, если я забыл добавить сюда ваш вклад, пожалуйста, не стесняйтесь сделать Pull request.

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# Кодекс Поведения участника
## Наши обязательства
Мы, как участники, авторы и лидеры обязуемся сделать участие в сообществе
свободным от притеснений для всех, независимо от возраста, телосложения,
видимых или невидимых ограничений способности, этнической принадлежности,
половых признаков, гендерной идентичности и выражения, уровня опыта,
образования, социально-экономического статуса, национальности, внешности,
расы, религии, или сексуальной идентичности и ориентации.
Мы обещаем действовать и взаимодействовать таким образом, чтобы вносить вклад в открытое,
дружелюбное, многообразное, инклюзивное и здоровое сообщество.
## Наши стандарты
Примеры поведения, создающие условия для благоприятных взаимоотношений включают в себя:
* Проявление доброты и эмпатии к другим участникам проекта
* Уважение к чужой точке зрения и опыту
* Конструктивная критика и принятие конструктивной критики
* Принятие ответственности, принесение извинений тем, кто пострадал от наших ошибок
и извлечение уроков из опыта
* Ориентирование на то, что лучше подходит для сообщества, а не только для нас лично
Примеры неприемлемого поведения участников включают в себя:
* Использование выражений или изображений сексуального характера и нежелательное сексуальное внимание или домогательство в любой форме
* Троллинг, оскорбительные или уничижительные комментарии, переход на личности или затрагивание политических убеждений
* Публичное или приватное домогательство
* Публикация личной информации других лиц, например, физического или электронного адреса, без явного разрешения
* Иное поведение, которое обоснованно считать неуместным в профессиональной обстановке
## Обязанности
Лидеры сообщества отвечают за разъяснение и применение наших стандартов приемлемого
поведения и будут предпринимать соответствующие и честные меры по исправлению положения
в ответ на любое поведение, которое они сочтут неприемлемым, угрожающим, оскорбительным или вредным.
Лидеры сообщества обладают правом и обязанностью удалять, редактировать или отклонять
комментарии, коммиты, код, изменения в вики, вопросы и другой вклад, который не совпадает
с Кодексом Поведения, и предоставят причины принятого решения, когда сочтут нужным.
## Область применения
Данный Кодекс Поведения применим во всех публичных физических и цифровых пространства сообщества,
а также когда человек официально представляет сообщество в публичных местах.
Примеры представления проекта или сообщества включают использование официальной электронной почты,
публикации в официальном аккаунте в социальных сетях,
или упоминания как представителя в онлайн или офлайн мероприятии.
## Приведение в исполнение
О случаях домогательства, а так же оскорбительного или иного другого неприемлемого
поведения можно сообщить ответственным лидерам сообщества с помощью email.
Все жалобы будут рассмотрены и расследованы оперативно и беспристрастно.
Все лидеры сообщества обязаны уважать неприкосновенность частной жизни и личную
неприкосновенность автора сообщения.
## Атрибуция
Данный Кодекс Поведения основан на [Кодекс Поведения участника][homepage],
версии 2.0, доступной по адресу
https://www.contributor-covenant.org/version/2/0/code_of_conduct.html.
Принципы Воздействия в Сообществе были вдохновлены [Mozilla's code of conduct
enforcement ladder](https://github.com/mozilla/diversity).
[homepage]: https://www.contributor-covenant.org

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from setuptools import setup, find_packages
if __name__ == "__main__":
setup(name='wtfpython',
version='0.2',
description='What the f*ck Python!',
author="Satwik Kansal",
maintainer="Satwik Kansal",
maintainer_email='satwikkansal@gmail.com',
url='https://github.com/satwikkansal/wtfpython',
platforms='any',
license="WTFPL 2.0",
long_description="An interesting collection of subtle & tricky Python Snippets"
" and features.",
keywords="wtfpython gotchas snippets tricky",
packages=find_packages(),
entry_points = {
'console_scripts': ['wtfpython = wtf_python.main:load_and_read']
},
classifiers=[
'Development Status :: 4 - Beta',
'Environment :: Console',
'Environment :: MacOS X',
'Environment :: Win32 (MS Windows)',
'Intended Audience :: Science/Research',
'Intended Audience :: Developers',
'Intended Audience :: Education',
'Intended Audience :: End Users/Desktop',
'Operating System :: OS Independent',
'Programming Language :: Python :: 3',
'Programming Language :: Python :: 2',
'Topic :: Documentation',
'Topic :: Education',
'Topic :: Scientific/Engineering',
'Topic :: Software Development'],
)

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from os.path import dirname, join, realpath
import pydoc
try:
from urllib.request import urlretrieve
except ImportError:
from urllib import urlretrieve
url = ("http://raw.githubusercontent.com/satwikkansal/"
"wtfpython/master/README.md")
file_path = join(dirname(dirname(realpath(__file__))), "content.md")
def fetch_updated_doc():
try:
print("Fetching the latest version...")
urlretrieve(url, file_path)
print("Done!")
except Exception as e:
print(e)
print("Uh oh, failed to check for the latest version, "
"using the local version for now.")
def render_doc():
with open(file_path, 'r', encoding="utf-8") as f:
content = f.read()
pydoc.pager(content)
def load_and_read():
fetch_updated_doc()
render_doc()
if __name__== "__main__":
load_and_read()

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#!/usr/bin/env python3
import sys
from wtf_python.main import load_and_read
if __name__ == "__main__":
sys.exit(load_and_read())